Week One

The Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth by Steven Mintz:

Age as a concept has many different meanings and understandings

-these different definitions studied by historians such as class, ethnicity and gender can become the source of cultural conflict

Chronological marker used to measure one’s progress through life (developmental milestones, including social norms and expectations)

-system of power relationships such as social groups of same age or of hierarchical system of different ages

Age is also subjective to one’s experience

-functions in different ways in social and cultural context

-intersects with other categories of social organisation

Age used for categorization in institutions (such as schools) and legal rights (such as right to vote, marry, legal consequences etc.)

-system of power relations

-childhood is now actively protected (internet censoring, sex education, reduce school dropouts ect)

Historians show how the above social norms/categories have shifted throughout time

ex) modern societies focus on age and categorize age more than older societies

The study of gender allowed historians to bring to light category differences, oppression, the contrast in gender roles as well as agency,
Age and gender are both cultural systems both involving cultural assumptions, meanings and values
Age and gender also function differently

-age is more fluid and categories or social norms can shift throughout time and is constantly modified by class, ethnicity, gender and nationality

-gender shapes life course and is subject to equality

Week 2

Bullen, Hidden Workers:

1800’s all members of the family contributed to the wellbeing of the household economy
Argues against Haights idea that urban-industrial households relied solely on the fathers income and children seen as “financial burden”
Bullen states all members of the household were still needed in urban families to meet the demand of city life (low wages, poor conditions)
Many had culture shock when moving to urban areas as they focused on materialism, competition, standardization and consumption (much different than farm life focuses)
Fear of unemployment (competitive jobs), oppressive conditions
Children had domestic responsibilities and day to day survival tasks such as collecting firewood, gardening for food, sell food to neighbours etc. before age 8
If mother and father both worked, or were deceased, the children would take over their duties in the home
These duties assigned according to gender unless family had same gender children
Parents kept children at home from school to assist with household duties or home centered jobs such as sweat shops or sewing (carrying material home and around neighbourhood)
Work was taken home to gain more income for the household (children would help)
Home Sweatshops not protected by government, only for industrial sweatshops
Home sweatshops had worse conditions, little breaks or rest because the home and workplace became one
Was not because parents were mean but simply under the stress of the economic lifestyle and wanting to survive
Children took up street trades (newspapers, polished shoes)
Newsboys were considered serious businessman who could move up within the company
Families relied on these newsboys for good income and sometimes would be their only income
Middle class families began complaining about so many children on the streets (running around or working jobs) because they thought this was a bad influence on the children
Middle class reformers- CAS- placed children in foster care in homes
When placed in these homes they would perform household duties and were often treated as servants- especially in immigrant children

McDonald “The School as an Agent of Political Socialisation”

Children can learn basic knowledge, attitudes and values that influence their behavior as adult and political citizens [through primary (family) and secondary (school) agents]
Political industries use this conclusion to their benefit treating children’s education as a vital part of politics
It is hard for institutions to change family values etc, so schools and media are a easier place for institutions to control political values

Ryerson

worked on increasing public involvement in politics through public schools
Argues allowing the public to control schooling is detrimental to the state
The government must use the school system to shape the minds of youth in the way they want society to think/act
Argues public education is necessary to guide youth to act in a way that will benefit the country (influence children to be loyal to their government and country)
States that previously learned unethical family values must be erased through the teachings in a public school setting
Public, unified education would allow children to spread the beliefs and values of the state
He states without public education society will remain unloyal to the state
He uses Europe’s monarchy systems control of public education as evidence of societies loyalty to the country
Uses his own teachings as evidence for government control of public education stating that he has influenced society just by his writings
Public education=uniformity and socialisation starting at a young age

Robertson “Reform, literacy and the Lease”

PEI first established free education under “the Free Education Act” 1872
States demand for stable jobs/pay for teachers, to control immigrants, and citizens getting trapped into leases they could not understand all contributed to the government passing this act
Wanted to control where immigrants took residence
Wanted to place the governments ideals and values into the youth through schooling as well as increase their chances of living a good life
Before this act schools varied in educational practices, low student attendance
Has similar ideas to Ryerson about public education and loyalty to the government
After the act, number of students attending public school doubled and allowed teachers to have a stable income
This showed the rest of the country that public schooling is in the best interest of the government and the people
Maritime provinces followed PEI’s footsteps and soon implemented public education
Led to public schooling throughout the country

Week 4

The Rhythm of Work and the Rhythm of School, Ian Davey

The school act 1850 gave legislation to school boards for free education
Task was to get children into schools as well as have regular attendance to gain all the benefits of education
Total yearly enrolment in elementary schools from 1850-1870 was exaggerated due to to the fact that they included any student who enrolled at any point even if they left or switched schools
Although enrollment showed improvement attendance was still a problem as school was a part time event for most working middle and lower class children
Issue was not non-attendance but instead irregularity of attendance (worse in rural areas)
Argued that irregular attendance forced teachers to continuously re-teach lessons to students who weren’t there ultimately slowing the progress of the entire school
Juvenile crime was feared and therefore the government wanted to use schools to educate children away from delinquency
Some argued the idea of free school caused the parents not to value school because they did not have to put their own money into it
“Material circumstance”, was the reason behind irregular attendance- schools must supply all the materials needed for poor students in order to expect regular attendance
Attendance also influenced by weather, sickness, crop failure, irregular employment, depression, poverty, need for children’s help at home, labourers constantly moving around for work, factory working
Kids who are too young to labour are sent to school in summer and those who were able stayed home to work the fields (winter is reversed)– attendance dependant on seasonal changes

**reasons for irregular attendance was a much more complicated problem than superintendent reports suggested

Older children attended less school due to the opportunities they had to make money instead

Boys Will Be Men and Girls Will be Mothers, Chun

Childhood is not biological but is the product of social interactions and of the power structure they live in
Reflects and maintains power relations between children and adults (ex. Children are subordinate to adults)
Sources: annual reports from Toronto family court, Vancouver Juvenile Court, newspaper and Ontario inspector of Legal Offices
Not a lot of information from poor/working class
Describes how the sources they used are limited/bias due to lost files and poor record keeping
Both Vancouver and Toronto increasing urban centers
Pathological behavior= when one acts outside of prescribed social norms of the household unit or being drunk or committing adultery
Childhood was seen as a time of dependency and moral guidance (more middle class)
Reformers wanted to stop child workers, separate boy and girl schools, separate child and adults in legal matters
Working class children still remained working in fields, mining etc. late 19th century
Working class youth rarely under adult supervision in spare time
Froebel- childhood is a time of innocence and children are easily corrupted
Social and mental sciences created childhood norms, family life and sexuality
Basic ideals of mothering, parenthood and marital sex were now normalized
childhood= psycho sexual stages and forced dependancy
Used education to maintain/inscribe these social norms
Reformers pushed for policies regulating the activities of children and their relations with adults to prevent them from behaving on the behavior prerogative to adults
Girls- childhood=pre-sexuality – offenses made to protect young girls from sexual predators
Consent for women raised from sixteen to eighteen
Sexual immorality=child delinquent
Reform in child welfare in the workplace and parents now forced to send children to school on a full time basis
Leisure activities also regulated (curfews, censorship etc.)
Intra-family relations regulated (save marriage, heterosexual only)
Abortion and birth control criminalised, sterilization of “mentally defective”

*all these centered upon the notion of practicing middle class social norms accepted by the government to ensure parents maintain their children to these standards

Age limits for certain things begin to be inscribed (employment, sexual relations etc.)
Reformers wanted “social tribunals” instead of police because police were too formal without any knowledge of family relations- led to juvenile and family courts
How these courts carried out directly relates to social norms and notion of childhood and aimed at eliminating all delinquency
In court boys were seen as aggressive, rational, sexual and girls were seen as peaceful, sexually passive and emotional
Deviant girls always assumed as sexually deviant
Boys as products of bad parenting

– these reflect gender biases of the time and family norms such as women as mothers and wives and fathers as breadwinners

Parents seen as direct link to child delinquency
Girls receive harsher punishment than boys in courts

*creation of welfare state

The Boys in the Nova Scotian Coal Mines: 1873-1923, Robert McIntosh

caused further thinking into the life of these children in this time period
boys less than 10 years old were working in coal mines
children who weren’t at school for the required about of time, could be arrested
continued to suggest the importance the small boys staying at the coal mine to ensure the survival of the household
child labour was needed and expected
ideas of compulsory education clashed with the necessity of boys small enough to carry out specific duties in the mines
expresses the relationship between a working society and a society centred around education
education of the younger generation is required to ensure the development and success of the society as a whole in the future

Eric Sager, Women Teachers in Canada, 1881-1901

appeal of teaching to young women
many came from small town farms
becoming a teacher was often the only income for the family, (many occupations were still closed to women
contributing economically came a degree of respect
Women unable to achieve the status of a professional (teaching was still associated with authority)
For many the decision to become a teacher was based on the family needs, the job market and conditions
shows the limitations/ inequality of being a female
Increase in education created job opportunities for women
its emergence cannot be attributed to one or two distinct reasons, but instead that the feminization of teaching was the result of society evolving to urbanization and industrialization
economic conditions caused many women to seek work outside of the home
Interesting quote- “it had become common by 1870 to insist in wills that daughters be educated; the concern for the schooling of daughters appeared to have increased as marriage to farmers became more uncertain.” (the increasing requirement of women to earn their own livelihood, increased the importance of educating both boys and girls equally

Week 5

Claudette Knight, “Black Parents Speak: Education in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Canada West”

Stresses the influence of the community in public schools
Stresses political decisions being made regarding education
Suggests that opposing members of the community attempt to get around laws supporting equal opportunities for education by using creative ways to impose inequality Quote- “often used ‘creative’ strategies to deny blacks their legal right to attend common schools; for example, they would gerrymander school districts or declare that common schools were private… [or] simply remove their children from common school, which invariably closed due to reduction in attendance.”
Local communities had a significant amount of power over the conditions of public schools despite equality laws
Many parents wrote to the superintendent to express their views (significant influence)
Describing Ryerson’s decision to conform to the communal majority in favour of segregated schooling- She states the increase of awareness of local racism led Ryerson to project this view
Today the same degree of parental and communal influence on schools continues
Although this kind of discrimination in Canadian schools is not allowed, there is no doubting racism still exists
Parents today continue to hold a strong influence on their children’s education

Timothy J. Stanley, “White Supremacy, Chinese Schooling, and School Segregation in Victoria”

Examines the effects that racism can have on one’s quality of life and opportunities (due to racist social practices)
Racism surrounded their everyday life
Limited available economic activity
Sanctioned their available residences
Deprived family life
This type of oppression was often challenged by minorities (strikes and committees like the Chinese Canadian Club)
Racism is still an issue today, affecting the lives of minorities in similar ways as described in this article, who continue to push back in similar ways

Jean Barman, “Schooled for Inequality: The Education of British Columbia Aboriginal Children”

Stresses the impact of residential schools had across generations of Aboriginal peoples
Speaks about Vera Manuel who recalls the experience herself, the second generation after residential school

“although my older brother and I didn’t attend residential school, we didn’t really escape it either as it visited us every day of our childhood through the replaying over and over of our parents’ childhood trauma…”

Vera’s experience argues the long-term effects on generations who did not even attend residential school- This also argues the long term impact on residential students, passing this trama onto their children
States that Aboriginals have the highest rates of incarceration, suicide, alcoholism and impoverishment in Canada- This argues the impacts of the trauma of residential school translates into real life issues
This article is perfect for my research project on residential schooling!

Helen Raptis, “Implementing Integrated Education Policy for On-Reserve Aboriginal Children in British Columbia”

Focuses on an approach to integrate Aboriginal students into public schools and the power distribution involved (argues will prepare students for full Canadian citizenship)
Discusses the conditions that followed the movement to abolish segregated schools and implement integrated schooling due to the failed full assimilation of students in residential schools, the equality movement and joint federal/provincial funding
Showcases how some Aboriginal peoples advocated for integrated schooling due to equality revolution and poor conditions of Aboriginal education
Argues the success rates of aboriginal students following this change- stating that enrollment was high but dropout rates were also high as students began old enough and big enough for to work- IQ rates were low in part due to the biased tests geared towards white culture, not Aboriginal
White paper- trying to eliminate the Indian act
Government blamed Aboriginal failure in school to poor housing, clothing, food, language, methods of discipline within First Nations cultures- they didn’t understand or try to understand their culture
This article is in great contrast to Barmans as we see more of the efforts of both the government and Aboriginal peoples into integration

**argument is without a significant presence in the schools, money, education curriculum, or resources will be sufficient enough to induce province wide changes in individual aboriginal students. Aboriginals need to develop their own modern education methods in order to succeed

Week 6

Raibmon, Paige. “‘A New Understanding of Things Indian’: George Raley’s Negotiation of the Residential School Experience.” BC Studies 110 (1996): 69-96.

Where? Coast Salish High school
This article speaks towards the education of First Nations students who attended public schools in the 1970’s
He interviews teachers and students of both Native and non-Native decent about the struggles and tensions between these two groups during their time in an ethnically divided Coast Salish High School.
He compares the experiences of First Nations students from BC to First Nations students from Washington state because some of these students lived across the border. Both Canada and the United States took similar assimilation actions that removed First Nations children from their communities, although in 1930’s USA shut down most of their boarding schools while Canada continued these schools into the 1980’s.
It is important to note that not all aboriginal students constantly experienced racism and marginalisation throughout their high school years but the reality of colonialism and assimilation was very much ingrained into their everyday lives.
He claims that we must look at other schooling instead of only residential schools because going to residential school was in many respects, better than going to a public school. He argues this is so because of the ingrained racism and stereotypes within public schools from students, teachers and white parents demanding the school focus on their children.
He discusses the Boldt decision which gave Coast Salish tribes permission to catch half the salmon at their normal fishing sites in Puget Sound. This caused tension between white families and aboriginal families causing direct backlash in high school classrooms as white settlers were angry First Nations communities were benefiting from the decision.
Aboriginal students lives at school vastly differed from their lives at home. Aboriginal students were placed as outsiders and at the bottom of the food chain in school but were given respect, responsibility and growing leadership status. He stresses how the white people in the schools did not understand why students were struggling because they did not have knowledge of the poor Aboriginal culture and lifestyle.
no plumbing or electricity
Even those who weren’t poor still at the bottom of the social hierarchies
Struggled with “wanting to be like everyone else”
Indian baby show- to upgrade Indian social identity to white standards — adopt white middle class norms

—relate this to other readings wanting poor community to adopt middle class ways- also they blamed parents for delinquency of teens

Couldn’t play sports because there was no bus to take them home after schools and parents more likely than not, didn’t have cars also couldn’t buy equipment
Bold decision allowed fishing- economic benefits- cars- students on sports teams
Some students moved to USA in segregated schools in order to get away from the backlash of the Boldt decision
Fights were common between mostly white and native due to racism— argues bolt decision allowed these fights for whites to release anger about bold decision
Indian counterculture movement- red power movement — interacted with mainstream counter culture– endorsed accepting traditional Indian culture and cultural diversity– seen as a way out of materialistic USA– often helping Lumi communities
Students attended smoke house ceremonies as a direct connection to white people repressing Iindian ways to gain a sense of identity and self esteem

Raibmon, Paige. “‘A New Understanding of Things Indian’: George Raley’s Negotiation of the Residential School Experience.” BC Studies 110 (1996): 69-96.

George Raley’s negotiation of the Residential School Experience (principal)- principals had major influence on schools- curriculum
Coqualeetza Indian residential school
Argues this residential school shows how some schools were flexible to “attitudes, environments and experiences” because of Raley implementing his own ways of teaching native children, tried to understand their ethnological background— reinforced the system rather than challenged it
Made it more comfortable but did not challenge the removal of children- believed in christianization and civilisation– uses the words “savage, heathen, weird” to describe native culture- but also defends them stating they may not have European education but they still were raised with morals and values

*covers three initiatives he used – approach to child welfare, curricular innovations and commercialisation of native art

States changing of the meaning of “childhood” at this time- relate this to earlier readings

CHILD WELFARE- Enforced cottage or family reform system- in alternative to normal dormitory (treating students by the collective rather than the individual) models do provide “home like” environments with a surrogate mother or father– government did not/would not pay for these students- therefore he couldn’t fully implement this

Tried to preserve native culture and attempted to commercialise their art (but under white authority)
He did not believe in First Nations superiority but still did not see the wrong in removing children from families to go to these schools

Week 9

Stamp, Robert M. “Growing Up Progressive? Part I: Going to Elementary School in 1940s Ontario.” Historical Studies in Education vol. 17, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 187-98.

Enforcement and focus on patriotism through singing the national anthem and war songs such as in flanders fields (I did both of these things in school, we sang the national anthem before every assembly and around remembrance day we would memorize in flanders field)
Similar to Amy Von Heyking’s article
Less gender specific- all genders encouraged to try all types of classes
Less focus on a unified curriculum in attempt to gear education towards individuals instead of the class as a whole- personalized learning plans for students with different learning capabilities and styles
Attempt to progress and improve education to the standards society needs at the time and is constantly improving as society changes

Stamp, Robert M. “Growing Up Progressive? Part II : Going to High School in 1950s Ontario.” Historical Studies in Education vol. 17, no. 2 (Fall 2005): 321-31.

Discusses stress involved in higher grade examinations due to the intense pressure and importance placed on these exams therefore students would spend hours on hours studying
Success on exam= success in future studies and in life
Focus now on the more well rounded student
Students encouraged to not only be excellent in their studies, but also in extracurriculars such as sports, art and volunteering in the community (this is very much so a focus today as well. For example, to get into the elementary teaching program you need volunteer hours in order to be eligible)
Large amounts of Shakespeare and not enough focus on Canadian literature

*I can relate to the intense pressure placed on students to perform well on their exams as when I was in high school the provincial exams were held in high regard and we would often spend the whole school year preparing for these exams as they often affected a large amount of our marks

Heyking, Amy von. “Selling Progressive Education to Albertans, 1935-1953,” in Sara Burke and Patrice Milewski (Eds.), Schooling in Transition: Readings in the Canadian History of Education, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012: 340- 354.

Discusses the pressure for progressive reform schools in Alberta (focused on teachers)
This was due to social, political and economic unrest during the depression
People believed schools were the place to start practicing progressive reform due to schools major influence on children lives
new ideas around curriculum and classroom practices began to form and changed the focus of education to focus on developing children with well balanced personalities to ensure they would grow to be happy citizens able to get along with society
Many different views on what progressive education looked like in schools (and what was considered a happy citizen)
These views/ strategies all depended on the teacher and how that teacher wanted to portray progressivism to their class
This often included: cleaning up after yourself and classmates, respecting other classmates, teachers and all school property such as books etc. (these tasks often rewarded with small awards or prizes to reassure students these tasks are part of what make them a good student)
This is very much political and the government wanting society to be uniform and perform in ways they could like ex) the happy citizen

** I still see this today when I volunteered in a grade 1/2 class, students are expected to clean up all of their messes and put away anything they take out of its place

Sutherland, Neil. “The Triumph of ‘Formalism’: Elementary Schooling in Vancouver from the 1920s to the 1960s,” in Sara Burke and Patrice Milewski (Eds.), Schooling in Transition: Readings in the Canadian History of Education, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012: 375-397.

Education = training faculties of the mind using memory and reason
Using math, spelling etc to train the mind to use skills learned and translate them into everyday life
Although there were advocates for progressive schooling, formalism remained consistent into the 1950s
Notions of school taught before the first day of school even began through homelife and sunday school
School maintenance important for the school to look good for the community
Very formal school setting – desks in rows, formal attendance, formal language to teacher, prayer before class starts
Teachers teaching groups of children rather than individuals
Mostly all teachers taught the same way/style
Rewarded with stars for good work
Did have art, PE and home economics which was more progressive and energetic teaching methods
1920s= departmentalized schooling= moving from class to class for different subjects
School nurse avidly checked students for disease *** very different than in my research paper on residential schools
Highest ranking teachers= those who stuck to routine, drilled and tested often- “no nonsense” policies
Students only looked at their teachers negatively if they were inadequate at explaining material or could not keep order
Physical punishments or informal discipline such as “the project method”- big study projects
Teacher and staff thought the best way to teach was to teach how they were taught- formal schooling